Apparatus for creating, testing, and modifying geological subsurface models

ABSTRACT

A computer-based apparatus for creating subsurface models having a graphical display device, a user input device, means for selecting a region of the world to be modeled; means for providing geophysical and geographical data corresponding to the selected region of the world; means for providing an archive of known geological structures; and means for providing an interface which permits a user to create a subsurface model of the identified region. The invention further involves related computer-based apparatuses for interactive creation of geological subsurface models, for managing geological hypotheses, and for providing information for creation of a geological model.

CROSS-REFERENCE TO RELATED APPLICATIONS

Applicants hereby incorporate by reference simultaneously-filed U.S.patent applications Ser. Nos. 08/980,956 and 08/980,957, respectivelytitled METHOD FOR CREATING, TESTING, AND MODIFYING GEOLOGICAL SUBSURFACEMODELS and ARTICLE OF MANUFACTURE FOR CREATING, TESTING, AND MODIFYINGGEOLOGICAL SUBSURFACE MODELS.

BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION

1. Field of the Invention

Aspects of the present invention draw from the fields of geology,geography, geophysics, applied mathematics, computer science, softwareengineering, and ergonomics (as it relates to the design of computerinterfaces). In particular, the present invention relates tocomputer-based systems which assist geologists (or others) inconstructing, modifying, and testing geologically-consistent model(s) ofthe subsurface using geographic, well-bore, seismic, and geologicalanalog data, as well as known principles of geology and geophysics.

2. Description of the Prior Art

Geologists are often required to construct models in order to facilitatethe efficient extraction of hydrocarbons or minerals from thesubsurface, or to control contaminants in subsurface reservoirs. Aproblem with constructing these models is that subsurface formations aretypically either sparsely sampled or sampled at a low resolution, bymeasurements made in a borehole or by surface geophysical measurements.Also, the measured properties are frequently not those of directinterest to a person attempting to construct a model (e.g., seismicmeasurements respond to variations in acoustic impedance, whereas thegeoscientist may be required to construct a model of the permeabilitywithin the subsurface). And, while there exists a large body ofknowledge concerning the "interpretation" of well-log, seismic and othergeophysical data (see, e.g., O. Serra, Sedimentary Environments fromWireline Logs, Schlumberger Technical Services Publication No.M-081030/SMP-7008 (1985)), the reality is that "interpretation"activities inevitably rely on the judgments of experiencedgeoscientists.

Thus, it is typically necessary to combine available measurements withgeological knowledge (ie., the knowledge typically possessed bygeological "experts") in order to estimate the distribution of theparameters-of-interest in the subsurface. However, this process atleast, as currently practiced is complex, cumbersome, and error-prone.

Typically, a geoscientist will attempt to interpret subsurface data onthe basis of prior experience. Reasoning, based on analogies towell-characterized subsurface formations or outcrop, he/she will makeassumptions about the distribution of geophysical parameters in theformation-of-interest. See, e.g., T. Dreyer, Geometry and Facies ofLarge-Scale Flow Units in Fluvial-Dominated Fan-Delta-Front Sequences,in M. Ashton (Ed.), Advances in Reservoir Geology, Geological SocietySpecial Publication, 69, 135-174 (1993). When properly applied, thismethod of reasoning-by-analogy may allow the scientist to predictunknown properties-of-interest based upon available measurement(s) andassumptions about the nature of the formation (e.g, that it resemblesthe shape of a certain, known formation).

However, in addition to being a time-consuming and dependent upon theavailability of appropriate geological "experts," this method ofmatching to analogue formations suffers from certain problems. Inparticular, as has been noted in the literature, e.g., I. D. Bryant andS. S. Flint, Quantitative Elastic Reservoir Geological Modeling:Problems and Perspectives, in S. S. Flint and I. D. Bryant (Eds.),Geological Modeling of Hydrocarbon Reservoirs and Outcrop Analogues,International Association of Sedimentologists Special Publication, 15,3-20 (1993), and J. Alexander, A Discussion on the Use of Analogues forReservoir Geology, in M. Ashton (Ed.), Advances in Reservoir Geology,Geological Society Special Publication, 69, 175-194 (1993), it isdifficult to:

(i) ensure that the selected analogue is appropriate for a givensubsurface formation; and

(ii) scale the analogue information to best fit theformation-of-interest.

At present, systematic, rigorous, and efficient methods for scaling thespatial statistics of an "analogue formation" to best match that of aformation- or reservoir-of-interest do not exist. And, even after aninitial "analogue" model is created, no systematic, rigorous, andefficient method exists for verifying or testing the model.

A number of prior-art patents address the general topic of geologicalmodeling. U.S. Pat. No. 4,646,240, METHOD AND APPARATUS FOR DETERMININGGEOLOGICAL FACIES, incorporated herein by reference, describes atechnique for automatically determining lithological facies fromwell-log data.

U.S. Pat. No. 5,012,675, INTEGRATING MULTIPLE MAPPING VARIABLES FOR OILAND GAS EXPLORATION, incorporated herein by reference, describes atechnique for integrating geological survey data (e.g., topographic,bathymetric, free air and Bouguer gravity, magnetic, electromagnetic,geochemical, radioactivity, temperature, biotic, geological, and other(non-seismic and non-well-logging) surveys) to locate subsurfacefeatures useful for mineral exploration.

U.S. Pat. No. 4,648,268, METHOD OF DEFINING HOMOGENEOUS ROCK FORMATIONZONES ALONG A BOREHOLE ON THE BASIS OF LOGS, incorporated herein byreference, discloses a method for processing well-log data to defineformation boundaries along the borehole.

U.S. Pat. No. 4,937,747, ITERATIVE DISJOINT CLUSTER AND DISCRIMINANTFUNCTION PROCESSING OF FORMATION LOG RESPONSES AND OTHER DATA,incorporated herein by reference, details a cluster analysis-basedmethod for computing subsurface rock classifications from well-log data.

U.S. Pat. No. 4,991,095, PROCESS FOR THREE-DIMENSIONAL MATHEMATICALMODELING OF UNDERGROUND VOLUMES, incorporated herein by reference,describes a technique for subsurface modeling utilizing a regular gridin the longitude-latitude plane and arbitrary resolution in the depthdirection.

U.S. Pat. No. 5,671,136, PROCESS FOR SEISMIC IMAGING MEASUREMENT ANDEVALUATION OF THREE-DIMENSIONAL SUBTERRANEAN COMMON-IMPEDANCE OBJECTS,U.S. Pat. No. 5,475,589, SYSTEM FOR EVALUATING SEISMIC SEQUENCELITHOLOGY AND PROPERTY, AND FOR EVALUATING RISK ASSOCIATED WITHPREDICTING POTENTIAL HYDROCARBON RESERVOIR, SEAL, TRAP OR SOURCE, andU.S. Pat. No. 4,679,174, METHOD FOR SEISMIC LITHOLOGIC MODELING, allincorporated herein by reference, describe methods for constructingsubsurface images and/or models from seismic data.

U.S. Pat. No. 5,671,344, PROCESS FOR DISPLAYING N DIMENSIONAL DATA IN ANN-1 DIMENSIONAL FORMAT, describes a method for displaying 3-D seismicdata on a computer display.

None of these prior-art approaches, either individually or collectively,address the need for an interactive system which enables a skilledgeoscientist to effectively create and evaluate multiple, alternativemodels, comprised of geologically plausible, space-filling objects,while simultaneously viewing relevant portions of a massive database ofgeographic and geophysical data. The instant invention, as describedbelow, addresses these, and other, needs.

SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION

Generally speaking, and without intending to be limiting, one aspect ofthe invention relates to a computer-based apparatus for creatingsubsurface models, including, for example, a system having at least thefollowing components: means (of any type whatsoever) for selecting aregion of the world to be modeled; means (of any type) for providinggeophysical and geographical data corresponding to the selected regionof the world; means (of any type) for providing an archive of knowngeological structures; and, means (of any type) for providing aninterface which permits a user to create a subsurface model of theidentified region by: (a) selectively viewing a portion of thegeographical and/or geophysical data; (b) selecting a geologicalplausible geometry from the archive; (c) transforming the selectedgeometry in accordance with the geographical or geophysical data; and,(d) repeating (a), (b), and/or (c) as needed to create the subsurfacemodel.

Again, generally speaking, and without intending to be limiting, anotheraspect of the invention relates to a computer-based apparatus forinteractive creation of a geological subsurface model, including, forexample, a system having the following components: means (of any type)for identifying a region of the world whose subsurface is to be modeled;means (of any type) for creating a number of hypotheses regarding thegeology of the identified region; means (of any type) for testing one ormore of the hypotheses; and, means (of any type) for modifying one ormore of the hypotheses.

Again, generally speaking, and without intending to be limiting, anotheraspect of the invention relates to a computer-based apparatus formanaging geological hypotheses, including, for example, a systemcontaining the following components: a user-interface for creatinghypotheses; a storage device, containing a plurality of hypotheses,hierarchically organized into a plurality of tree-like structures; means(of any type) for reorganizing the tree-like structures in accordancewith user directions; and, means (of any type) for maintaininghierarchical, internal consistency among the hypotheses.

Again, generally speaking, and without intending to be limiting, anotheraspect of the invention relates to a computer-implemented apparatus forproviding information for creation of geological models, including, forexample, a system which includes the following: a user-interface adaptedto selectively display, under user control, the following data(corresponding to a selected region of the world): geographical datafrom the selected region, geophysical data from the selected region, andarchive data other regions.

The advantages of the instant invention include improved productivity increating geological models and improved precision of the modelsthemselves. As a result of superior modeling precision, well placementand production forecasting also improve.

BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE FIGURES

One embodiment of the invention is depicted in the attached set offigures, which set is intended to be exemplary (and not exhaustive orlimiting), and in which:

FIGS. 1A & 1B depicts the overall operation of the CyberGeologistsystem;

FIGS. 2-3 further detail selected elements of FIG. 1; and,

FIGS. 4-9 exemplify various states of the CyberGeologist user interface.

DETAILED DESCRIPTION OF THE PREFERRED EMBODIMENT

The invention is described with reference to a presently-preferredembodiment, CyberGeologist. CyberGeologist is a computer-implementedsystem. It includes a plurality of instructions, embodied in acomputer-readable medium (including, without limitation, RAM, ROM, orother solid-state media, and/or magnetic, magneto-optical, or opticaldevices), which cause a computer (of any sort, including, withoutlimitation, palm-top devices, so-called PDA's, PC's, engineeringworkstations, mini-computers, mainframe computers, and super-computers)to process data representative of geological and/or geophysicalphenomena in accordance with the invention.

CyberGeologist is an interactive system, designed to assist thegeoscientist in interpreting geophysical (and other) data, and tofacilitate the construction of 3-D geological models therefrom.Consequently, as shown in FIG. 1, CyberGeologist includes a userinterface 210. User interface 210 includes graphical display device (ofany sort, including, without limitation, a CRT display, flat-paneldisplay, projection device, of virtual-reality goggle device), a userinput device (of any sort, including, without limitation, a keyboard,mouse, other pointer device, voice-recognition system, or otherbiometric device), and instructions which cause the CyberGeologistsystem to compose appropriate displays (as exemplified in FIGS. 4-9) andreact in accordance with user instructions.

CyberGeologist embodies a fundamentally new approach to geology. Inessence, CyberGeologist is a toolkit for use by geologists in makingdecisions about oil and gas recovery. The user of CyberGeologist is ableto predict, away from the borehole. These predictions are accomplishedprimarily by geology, and secondarily by tools for geologists tosynergize their expertise with other data.

In nature, hydrocarbons are pooled in sediments that are heterogeneousand have compartments. This is why geology is important. If sedimentsappeared in simple, uniform layers, then geology would be unnecessaryfor recovery. But the compartments (in which hydrocarbons lie) areformed by the deposits of ancient rivers and beaches, for example, thathave been buried by millions of years of sedimentation and deformed bymountain-building, and are more or less isolated. Faults may producecompartments. Seismic measurements often do not have the resolution todelineate the compartments; wellbores frequently are very few and veryfar between. The boundaries of these compartments control the flow pathsfor fluids (and gases) during recovery. The geologist, who has worked alifetime on rivers and beaches, and is best trained to determine thecompartment boundaries (for decision-making purposes), currently has notool to do so.

CyberGeologist is a tool which assists the geologist in determiningboundaries and flow paths, thus facilitating the efficient placement ofwells in complex reservoirs.

Reference is now made to FIG. 1, which depicts the overall operation ofthe CyberGeologist system. (Note: While FIGS. 1-3 have certain arrowsdepicting an exemplary order of flow through the CyberGeologist system,there is, in reality, no requirement that the various modules orfunctions be invoked in any particular order; rather, user interface 210is flexible, and permits a user to navigate through the modules in anyorder.) Using interface 210, a user selects his/her project, with theassistance of project manager 300. Basically, a project comprises adefined region of the earth's surface (and/or subsurface), along with aset of interpretations (or hypotheses) regarding the geological featuresin the defined region. In the case of a pre-existing project, theproject may include a variety of previously-created hypotheses. Bycontrast, in the case of new project, there is empty space, along withgeographical (e.g, aerial surface photographs and topological maps) andgeophysical (e.g., seismic 820, flow 830, and drilling 840) data.

As illustrated in FIG. 2, project initiation 310 illustrativelycomprises identifying the user 311, assigning a project name 312, anddefining an objective 313. The system then generates a virtual-realitymodel of subsurface, from which the user directs his/her interpretationactivities.

Generating a virtual subsurface 320 illustratively comprises obtaininggeographical data from a database 321, rendering the geographical data322 into a form appropriate for display and manipulation through theuser interface, obtaining subsurface geophysical data 323, rendering thesubsurface data 324 for use by the interface, and pruning the data 325to include only that which the user wishes to include. Typically, thenext step involves the user's defining various targets for viewing inthe interface 330, which step illustratively comprises setting camerasand viewports 331 (and/or modifying cameras and viewports 332).

As depicted in FIG. 3, hypothesis manager 400 provides a framework forinterpreting (and hence modeling) the subsurface world. With the varioustargets in view, the user creates (or augments) a hypothesis. InCyberGeologist, hypotheses are created and managed in tree-likestructures. Thus, hypotheses are naturally organized into subsets. Anyhypothesis may have one or more sub-hypotheses, each of which may alsohave one or more sub-hypotheses, etc.

A hypothesis assigns an interpretation (i.e., one or more properties) toa region of space (an "interval") in the virtual subsurface. Hypothesisgeneration begins by initiating a hypothesis 410. As shown in FIG. 3,hypothesis initiation illustratively comprises creating a record (ortag) for the hypothesis 411, identifying (or describing) the hypothesis412, and reviewing the hierarchy 413 to place the hypothesis in itsproper position in the hierarchy.

Next, the user will typically set the interval to which the hypothesiswill pertain. In this step 420, geophysical data is viewed 421, and theuser selects an interval-of-interest 422 for interpretation.

Interpreting the selected interval 430 illustratively comprisesidentifying the depositional system 431 and/or interpreting thestratigraphic sequence 432 in the selected interval. Interpretation 430is performed interactively, by the user; he/she works with the interfaceto display geographical and geophysical data in a manner to reveal theproperty or feature upon which an interpretation is made.

Once a hypothesis is formulated, it preferably undergoes an immediateconsistency check 440, the results of which are reported to the user. InCyberGeologist, consistency checking 440 illustratively compriseschecking deductive logic 441 (e.g, to ensure self-consistency amongparent and child hypotheses) and/or checking inferences 442 (e.g.,against geophysical data).

Generally speaking, deduction operates from the general to the specific.A number of well-known geological rules lend themselves to deductiveapplication, for example, Walther's Law: "The various deposits of thesame facies area, and similarly, the sum of the rock of different faciesarea, were formed beside each other in space, but in crustal profile, wesee them lying on top of each other. It is a basic statement offar-reaching significance that only those facies and facies area can besuperimposed, primarily, that can be observed beside each other at thepresent time." (See O. Serra, 1985, at 49). Also, in regard toelectro-facies, the Rule of Non-Crossing Correlations--"layers aredeposited one over another, so that they can wedge out but they cannotcross" (O. Serra, 1985, at 187-88)--provides a basis for deductivelychecking the plausibility of an electro-facies sequence.

Inference, on the other hand, generally operates from the specific tothe general. For example, a user may "infer," from well-log responses,that a given interval is a sandstone, thus relating the specificinstance (i.e., the particular well-log response) to the more general(i.e., sandstones). Other inferential examples appear in thepreviously-incorporated '240 patent. See U.S. Pat. No. 4,646,240, col.29, ln. 34 col. 31, ln. 61.

Deductive rules can be used to check inferences. For example, assumethat a user has inferred the clay content for a given region. Assumealso that, independent of the data considered by the user, the databasecontains gamma-ray data, and that the gamma-ray data shows a low-levelplateau in the region of interest. At this point, deductive applicationof known rules of gamma-ray interpretation (see, e.g., '240 patent,"Rule 008") can be used to determine the plausibility of theclay-content hypothesis.

Once a hypothesis passes these internal consistency checks, a usertypically proceeds to the gallery 500. Gallery 500 provides an interfaceto a database of geological and geographical archive data, including,but not limited to, geographical data (such as aerial photographs,geological data (such as 2-D outcrop photographs, 3-D outcrop textures,core photos, and thin sections), geophysical data (such as seismic data,textural logs, well logs, vertical seismic profiles, andground-penetrating radar data), and archive data, such geometricalobjects or models (such as surfaces, geometries, and closed-form bodies)or other geological data (such as facies descriptions, biostratigraphy,and paleogeography).

Two basic tasks occur in the gallery. The first is model selection, andthe second is selection of objects for placement into the subsurface 3-Dworld. The user typically will enter gallery 500 with some piece of dataand browse the archive gallery 510 looking for examples of bodies fittedto data which, when properly fitted, most closely match the incomingdata; or, the user may enter with no data and wish to view all objects,generic or fitted, and pick one. Gallery 500 is preferably organizedinto subsets of related objects; thus, browsing through the gallery mayinvolve selecting a subset 520, and reviewing the contents therein.He/she may then review a realization 530 of the selected object in a 3-Dviewer. Once a template is selected 540, the user may proceed to theworkshop 600.

Workshop 600 allows the user to interact with varying data types in 3-D,and at the correct scale. This allows the user to value the data,instead of a generalization. There are two objectives: the first isthree dimensional interpretation, and the second is model building.

The purpose of the workshop is to allow the user to interact with thescales, and manipulate models in a uniform three dimensional context.Data from the project can be displayed in concert with the 3-D image ofthe template. The user selectively views the data at scales ranging fromcentimeters to kilometers. The workshop viewer allows the user tointeract with the project data using a set of tools. These tools providethe following functions: image processing of the seismic volume,selection of data types and representation on a per well or per projectbasis, camera control, one-dimensional exaggeration, etc. Another set oftools allows the user to make interpretive changes and deformations.

Using these tools, the user can attempt to fit an archive template 610to the project data. Typically, this process will involve severalmodifications or transformations of the template 620 to achieve anacceptable fit.

Reference is now made to FIG. 4, which depicts user interface 210, as itwould appear shortly after project initialization. Navigation window 211permits the user to invoke project, geology, archive, vault, workshop,and pathfinder functions. Command window 213a shows a history 213a-1 ofthe commands issued to CyberGeologist, and provides an input field213a-2 through which an advanced user can operate the system incommand-line mode. Information window 212a displays a history ofdiagnostic and/or status-indicating response messages fromCyberGeologist. Project window 214 provides a plurality of menus/formsfor project selection, initialization, or management. And window 215displays a selected rendering of the virtual subsurface.

Depicted in window 215 is an illustrative 3-D seismic volume 215a and aplurality of wellbores 215b. Command window history list 213a-1 showsthat the user has selected a cells from the "boonsville" project, loadedthis data, and established a camera position/direction for window 215'sview. Status information displayed in information window 212a verifiesCyberGeologist's successful completion of this select/load/positioncommand sequence.

Reference is now made to FIG. 5, which depicts a further illustrativeview of the CyberGeologist interface 210. Here, navigation window 211bappears in a compacted form, but still provides the same functionalityas window 211. Window 215's view of the virtual subsurface is nowpartially obscured behind other windows. (Note: The user has completecontrol to position these, as well as other, windows in whateverconfiguration is desired, so as, for example, to simultaneously displaygeographical, geophysical, wellbore, archive, and/or project status datain whatever combination is desired.)

Command window 213b indicates that the user has selected a well 217 (ie., well "by18d") from virtual subsurface 215, and information window212b confirms the selection. Command window 213b further reveals thatthe user has invoked the workshop's "geology" tool, and, once again,information window 212b confirms invocation of the geology tool and theparameters of its invocation.

Window 421 illustrates one aspect of the geology tool interface. Depthis represented along the vertical dimension, and a depth slider 423apermits the user to select a depth for display. A plurality of furthersliders 423b-e provide control of other display parameters.

Geology window 421 includes a number of side-by-side illustrative tracks424a-d. (Once again, these tracks can vary in number and type, all underuser control. Those shown are merely exemplary.)

Track 424a displays an exemplary section of an FMI image. (FormationMicro Imager ("FMI"), a trademark of Schlumberger, is aresistivity-based wellbore imaging tool. The depiction of an FMI imagein FIG. 6 is merely exemplary. Track 424a could alternatively containany known type of wellbore data. The object is to enable the user toeffectively segment the wells to focus attention on a small sub-portionof the formation volume) Since FMI images have azimuthal resolution,slider 423b provides a means for selecting the orientation of the track424a image.

A common characteristic of wellbore data is that, over substantialdepths, it often varies too much for meaningful, contrast-based visualdisplay. This phenomenon is evident in track 424a where, between depths422a and 422d, the image is essentially white. CyberGeologist provides arenormalization tool, whereby sections of the data can be renormalizedand displayed at maximum contrast, to support the interpretation task.Track 424b displays a renormalized portion (i.e., between depths 422aand 422d) of track 424a's FMI image. (Renormalization is just one of avariety of image enhancement and processing tools in the CyberGeologisttoolkit. Other operations, such as internal segmentation, grainsizecharacterization, and sequence stratigraphy, are provided as well.)

As is apparent in FIG. 5, the renormalized image 424b reveals a numberof interpretive possibilities. Using the images, as well as any otherdata that the user may wish to consult, the geoscientist can begin theprocess of hypothesizing the dips and other features of the subsurface.FIG. 5 illustrates several hypotheses (e., 425a-b) concerning dips inthe formation facies.

Tracks 424c-d provide an illustration of further hypotheses concerningthe depicted well section. As can be seen in track 424c, the user hashypothetically identified two sections 426a-b as point bars in ameandering river, and has identified the lithology of point bar 426b asa sandstone. The user can continue this process of creating hypotheses,changing the data windows (e, renormalizing, selecting and viewing othertypes of log data if available, looking at core data, etc.), creatingalternative hypotheses, deleting implausible hypotheses, etc., as longas need. Then, after the user has arrived at a satisfactory,self-consistent set of hypotheses, he/she will then proceed to the nextstep--identifying appropriate analogue(s) for the region(s)-of-interest.

Reference is now made to FIG. 6, which depicts a further illustrativeview of the CyberGeologist interface 210. As shown in command window213c, and confirmed by information window 212c, the user has queried thearchive 500 and invoked a gallery window 550 to display the retrievedanalogue data.

Gallery window 550 provides a pictorial means for navigating the archiveof geological analogue data. Visible in window 550 are a plurality ofselectable thumbnail images (e.g, 551a-d), each preferably correspondingto a 3-D archive object. These archive objects can include both examplesfrom nature (e.g., 551a-d) as well as geometrical models (e.g., 551e).

Gallery window 550 also provides a visual interface for searching thearchive to find structures of interest. In its browse/search mode, eachof the thumbnails (e.g., 551a-e) of gallery window 550 permits the userto retrieve related (e.g, graphically or geologically similar)structures from the archive, which then are displayed in thumbnail form,permitting further selection and search. Alternatively, the user cansearch or browse the archive by entering search queries in commandwindow 213c, with the results again being displayed gallery window 550.

After searching/browsing the archive through gallery window 550, theuser may select a particular structure (e.g., thumbnail 552) for moredetailed examination. Reference is now made to FIG. 7, which depicts afurther illustrative view of the CyberGeologist interface 210, in whichthe user has selected thumbnail 552 (see FIG. 6) for furtherexamination. As shown in command window 213c (and confirmed ininformation window 212d), the user has selected an archive object(designated "rio puerco") for detailed examination in window 553.

Window 553 provides a complete set of visual controls, thus permittingthe user to view any aspect of the available 3-D geometrical detail.Among the illustrated controls are a set of graphical editor controls554a (which control positioning, scaling, etc.) and a set of 3-Drotational controls 554b-d. Using window 553, the geoscientist canexplore the selected object to identify particular features it mightcontain (e.g., rivers, beaches) which can be analogized to the observedsubsurface data (such as that shown in FIG. 5, window 421).

Reference is now made to FIG. 8, which depicts a further illustrativeview of the CyberGeologist interface 210, in which a geometrical vaultobject 556a (along with several transformations 556b-c of it) isdisplayed in a workshop window 555. As shown in command window 213e andinformation window 212e, the user has selected a "pointbar" object 556afor display and manipulation in the workshop.

The workshop provides a variety of tools for selecting, manipulating,and deforming (e.g., stretching, cropping, conforming to lines/surfaces,etc.) 3-D geometrical objects. Using the workshop, the geologist createsand reshapes a geometrical object to fit observed features of thesubsurface formations. FIG. 8 shows two exemplary transformations 556b-cof the pointbar object 556a.

Reference is now made to FIG. 9, which depicts a further illustrativeview of the CyberGeologist interface 210. Here, an additional workshopwindow 561 has been created (see command window 213f and informationwindow 212f) to display a selected seismic horizon from subsurface 215.The user then applies CyberGeologist's "pathfinder" tool to "place" thepointbar 562 object, and deform it to fit the observed seismic contours.

Having now "placed" the pointbar object in the subsurface, one exemplarypass through the CyberGeologist workflow is now complete. To brieflyrecap, the process began with selection of a subsurface region ofinterest, continued with detailed observation, renormalization, andinterpretation of available subsurface data, then proceeded to reviewand search of archive data for possible sources of analogue data,continued by selection of a geometrical object from the vault anddeformation of the selected object to align with the formation contours,and finished by fitting the selected/deformed object to match theseismic contours of the formation. Through repetition of this process,the geologist can create highly accurate, geologically meaningful modelsof subsurface formations.

Finally, CyberGeologist preferably interfaces with a Validation Gauntlet810 (see FIG. 1) to assist the geoscientist in validating the createdmodel(s). Validation may involve one or more of the following: (i)comparison with seismic reflector data 820 (techniques for performingsuch comparisons are well known in the art); (ii) comparison withwell-log data 840 (which can be accomplished either with mathematical orartificial intelligence (i.e., deduction and inference) techniques);and/or (iii) comparison with flow data 840 (see, e.g., U.S. Pat. No.5,548,563, WELL TEST IMAGING, incorporated herein by reference).Alternatively, or as an additional, final step, a user can request adetailed geological simulation 900 to assist in deciding 100 whether toaccept, reject, or modify the prospective subsurface model.

While the foregoing has described and exemplified aspects of variousembodiments of the present invention, those skilled in the art willrecognize that alternative elements and techniques, and/or combinationsand permutations of the described elements and techniques, can besubstituted for, or added to, the embodiments and methods describedherein. The present invention not be defined by the specific apparatus,methods, and articles of manufacture described herein, but rather by theappended claims, which are intended to be construed in accordance withwell-settled principles of claim construction, including, but notlimited to, the following:

Limitations should not be read from the specification or drawings intothe claims (e.g., if the claim calls for a "chair," and thespecification and drawings show a rocking chair, the claim term "chair"should not be limited to a rocking chair, but rather should be construedto cover any type of "chair").

The words "comprising," "including," and "having" are always open-ended,irrespective of whether they appear as the primary transitional phraseof a claim, or as a transitional phrase within an element or sub-elementof the claim (e.g., the claim "a widget comprising: A; B; and C" wouldbe infringed by a device containing 2A's, B, and 3C's; also, the claim"a gizmo comprising: A; B, including X, Y, and Z; and C, having P and Q"would be infringed by a device containing 3A's, 2X's, 3Y's, Z, 6P's, andQ).

The indefinite articles "a" or "an" mean "one or more"; where, instead,a purely singular meaning is intended, a phrase such as "one," "onlyone," or "a single," will appear.

Where the phrase "means for" precedes a data processing or manipulation"function," it is intended that the resulting means-plus-functionelement be construed to cover any, and all, computer implementation(s)of the recited "function."

A claim that contains more than one computer-implementedmeans-plus-function element should not be construed to require that eachmeans-plus-function element must be a structurally distinct entity (suchas a particular piece of hardware or block of code); rather, such claimshould be construed merely to require that the overall combination ofhardware/software which implements the invention must, as a whole,implement at least the function(s) called for by the claims.

What is claimed is:
 1. A computer-based apparatus for creatingsubsurface models, comprising:a graphical display device; a user inputdevice;(i) means for selecting a region of the world to be modeled; (ii)means for providing geological and geographical data corresponding tosaid selected region of the world; (iii) means for providing an archiveof known geological structures; (iv) means for providing an interfacewhich permits a user to create a subsurface model of the identifiedregion by:(a) selectively viewing a portion of the geographical and/orgeophysical data using said graphical display device; (b) selecting astructure from the archive using said user input device; (c) placing theselected structure within the selected region of the world to be modeledand transforming the selected structure in accordance with thegeographical or geophysical data; and (d) displaying the selectedstructure using said graphical display device.
 2. Apparatus according toclaim 1, wherein (iv) further comprises:(e) means for checking thesubsurface model for inconsistencies with the geographical and/orgeophysical data.
 3. Apparatus according to claim 2, wherein (iv)further comprises:(f) means for reporting inconsistencies, if any, tothe user.
 4. Apparatus according to claim 2, wherein (e) includes meansfor checking deductive logic.
 5. Apparatus according to claim 2, wherein(e) includes means for checking inferential logic.
 6. Apparatusaccording to claim 1, wherein (iv) further comprises:(e) means forchecking the subsurface model for internal inconsistencies.
 7. Apparatusaccording to claim 6, wherein (iv) further comprises:(f) means forreporting the internal inconsistencies, if any, to the user.
 8. Acomputer-based apparatus for interactive creation of a geologicalsubsurface model, comprising:a graphical display device; a user inputdevice; means for identifying a region of the world whose subsurface isto be modeled; means for viewing geophysical and/or geographical datacorresponding to selected intervals-of interest within said identifiedregion using said graphical display device and said user input device;means for creating a plurality of hypotheses regarding the geology ofsaid selected intervals of interest within the identified region usingsaid user input device; and means for testing one or more of saidhypotheses.
 9. Apparatus according to claim 8, further comprising:meansfor organizing said hypotheses into one or more trees, such that anyhypothesis may have one or more sub-hypotheses.
 10. Apparatus accordingto claim 9, further comprising:means for checking for internalinconsistencies, if any, between hypotheses and sub-hypotheses in thesame tree.
 11. Apparatus according to claim 10, further comprising:meansfor reporting said internal inconsistencies to the user.
 12. Apparatusaccording to claim 8, wherein said means for testing comprises means forchecking deductive logic.
 13. Apparatus according to claim 8, whereinsaid means for testing comprises means for checking inferential logic.14. Apparatus according to claim 8, further comprising:means forvalidating at least one of said hypotheses.
 15. Apparatus according toclaim 14, wherein said means for validating comprises:means forcomparing with seismic data.
 16. Apparatus according to claim 14,wherein said means for validating comprises:means for comparing withwell-log data.
 17. Apparatus according to claim 14, wherein said meansfor validating comprises:means for comparing with flow data. 18.Apparatus according to claim 14, wherein said means for validatingcomprises:means for performing a geophysical simulation.
 19. Acomputer-based apparatus for managing geological hypotheses,comprising:a graphical display device for viewing geophysical and/orgeographical data corresponding to a region of the world; auser-interface for creating geological hypotheses regarding said regionof the world; a storage device, containing a plurality of hypotheses,hierarchically organized into a plurality of tree-like structures; meansfor reorganizing said tree-like structures in accordance with userdirections; and, means for maintaining hierarchical, internalconsistency among said hypotheses.
 20. Apparatus according to claim 19,wherein the tree-like structures stored in said storage device areorganized such that every hypothesis is either a root hypothesis or asub-hypothesis of another hypothesis, the parent hypothesis. 21.Apparatus according to claim 20, wherein each sub-hypothesis containsall of the information of its parent hypothesis, plus additioninformation.
 22. Apparatus according to claim 19, wherein said userinterface permits a user to create a hypothesis by identifying thedepositional system in a specified interval.
 23. Apparatus according toclaim 19, wherein said user interface permits a user to create ahypothesis by interpreting the stratigraphic sequence in a specifiedinterval.
 24. Apparatus according to claim 19, wherein said means forreorganizing comprises means for deleting one or more hypotheses. 25.Apparatus according to claim 19, wherein said means for reorganizingcomprises means for reassigning one or more links between hypotheses andsub-hypotheses.
 26. Apparatus according to claim 19, wherein said meansfor maintaining hierarchical, internal consistency comprises:means forensuring that, for every hypothesis/sub-hypothesis pair, informationcontained in the sub-hypothesis is not logically inconsistent withinformation contained in the hypothesis.
 27. A computer-based apparatusfor providing information for creation of a geological model of aselected region, comprising:a user-interface adapted to selectivelydisplay:geophysical data corresponding to the selected region; and,archive data corresponding to other region(s); means for transformingselected said archive data using selected said geophysical data toprovide information for creation of a geological model of the selectedregion; and means for displaying said transformed archive data. 28.Apparatus according to claim 27, wherein geographical data comprisesaerial photographs.
 29. Apparatus according to claim 27, whereingeographical data comprises 2-D outcrop photographs.
 30. Apparatusaccording to claim 27, wherein geographical data comprises 3-D outcroptextures.
 31. Apparatus according to claim 27, wherein geophysical datacomprises seismic data.
 32. Apparatus according to claim 27, whereingeophysical data comprises textural logs.
 33. Apparatus according toclaim 27, wherein geophysical data comprises well logs.
 34. Apparatusaccording to claim 27, wherein geographical data comprises core photos.35. Apparatus according to claim 27, wherein geographical data comprisesthin sections.
 36. Apparatus according to claim 27, wherein geophysicaldata comprises a vertical seismic profile.
 37. Apparatus according toclaim 27, wherein geophysical data comprises ground-penetrating radardata.
 38. Apparatus according to claim 27, wherein archive datacomprises surfaces.
 39. Apparatus according to claim 27, wherein archivedata comprises core photos.
 40. Apparatus according to claim 27, whereinarchive data comprises aerial photographs.
 41. Apparatus according toclaim 27, wherein archive data comprises thin sections.
 42. Apparatusaccording to claim 27, wherein archive data comprises faciesdescriptions.
 43. Apparatus according to claim 27, wherein archive datacomprises biostratigraphy.
 44. Apparatus according to claim 27, whereinarchive data comprises paleo geography.
 45. Apparatus according to claim27, wherein archive data comprises outcrop photos.
 46. Apparatusaccording to claim 27, wherein archive data comprises geometries. 47.Apparatus according to claim 27, wherein archive data comprisesclosed-form bodies.